The first is production of an IgA-degrading protease which cleaves the host's IgA antibody. It also has unique flagellin genes, which can recombine and form novel flagella capable of tricking the host's defenses. Urease encourages struvite stone formation, which can allow the bacteria to reside within the stone, protected from antibiotic attack. Almost years on from its first discovery by Hauser, the full genome sequence of Proteus mirabilis was completed on 28 March by Melanie Pearson identifying more than 3, coding sequences with seven rRNA loci.
Ranging from its colourful historical references and literary connections, we have shown that the derivation of this word and its present-day usage is deeply entrenched in and stems from it true mythological origin. Source of Support: Nil. Conflict of Interest: None declared. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.
Journal List Indian J Urol v. Indian J Urol. Senthy V. Sellaturay , Raj Nair , Ian K. Dickinson , and Seshadri Sriprasad. Ian K. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. For correspondence: Mr. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Aims: It is common knowledge that proteus bacteria are associated with urinary tract infections and urinary stones. Materials and Methods: A detailed search for primary and secondary sources was undertaken using the library and internet. Results: Greek mythology describes Proteus as an early sea-god, noted for being versatile and capable of assuming many different forms.
Conclusions: Thus proteus, true to its name, has had a myriad of connotations over the centuries. Keywords: Etymology, history of medicine, mythology, proteus, urinary tract infection. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4a and b. Medical Joseph Carey Merrick was born on 5 th August Figure 5. Symbolism and other associations Protea, one of the oldest families of flowers on earth, dating back million years, was also named after Proteus, son of Poseidon.
Complete genome sequence of uropathogenic Proteus mirabilis, a master of both adherence and motility. J Bacteriol. Mobley HL, Belas R. Swarming and pathogenicity of Proteus mirabilis in the urinary tract. Trends Microbiol. Rather PN. Swarmer cell differentiation in Proteus mirabilis. Environ Microbiol. Guinard F. It is postulated that human intestines are a reservoir of Proteus bacteria, especially those belonging to prevailing P.
Lately, Porres-Osante et al. Zilberstein et al. However, the bacteria were present in comparatively high mean concentrations in the stomach of 8. The other members of the family Enterobacteriaceae — Escherichia coli , Enterobacter spp.
Although Ikeobi et al. The author suggested that the bacteria may become opportunists when the illness is caused by other intestinal pathogens or they may lead to intestinal disorders independently. Also, P. Thus, the presence of Proteus spp. Chow et al. Drzewiecka et al. Wang et al.
The same clone, identified by genotyping and the Dienes method, was detected in the consumed food and in stools of consumers as well as the cook handler and the waiter who, due to the lack of hygiene, most probably had transported the bacteria to the meal.
The fact that dirty hands may be an important step in feces-to-hand-to-mouth spread of Proteus spp. Smith et al. Padaruth and Biranjia-Hurdoyal [ ] detected Proteus spp. Also, Qadripur et al.
Peerbooms et al. Also, Senior and Leslie [ ] concluded that frequent isolation of P. The presence of P. Lecomte et al. Moreover, a significant positive correlation was found between the abundance of P. The microorganisms are an element of animal pathogenic or physiological microflora, especially in the intestines—a reservoir of the bacteria. Like in humans, the presence of Proteus spp. The example of such autoinfection was described by Gaastra et al.
It is probable that the intestine was a reservoir of the bacteria infecting the urinary tract of the dogs, because P. Also, Kroemer et al.
Normand et al. However, all the isolates were sensitive to most of the used antibiotics, so it was concluded that feral cats did not pose a risk to humans or other cats. Kitamikado and Lee [ 66 ] isolated from feces of raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides , a P. On the other hand, there was no connection found between Proteus spp.
However, the wound isolates displayed strong adherence and significantly stronger attachment than skin isolates proving enhanced virulence of pathogenic strains, as compared to normal skin isolates. The bacteria are virulent also to donkeys causing urinary tract infections. They were found to account for 6. Lowe et al. The gene was for the first time reported in a naturally occurring Gram-negative bacterium. Still Kobashi et al.
All Proteus species were detected in the cow. Hawkey et al. The authors concluded that the high similarity of the O-serotype profile of isolated strains e. Lu et al. The symbiosis between the parasites relies on the fact that the mite introducing the bacteria into the skin on the exoskeleton or in the gut receives suitable microclimate for the establishment and replication due to many virulence factors and enzymes produced by the cooperating microorganisms.
Rogers [ ] suggested a possibility of the transmission of potentially pathogenic bacteria, including Proteus spp. The author stated the presence of P. Other authors also emphasized the role of wild birds in the transmission and spread of pathogenic bacteria to domestic poultry, cattle, or humans, resulting in the change of their status from bird fecal microflora members to the etiological agent of pathogenesis. Yong et al. However, no bacteria with the exception of Klebsiella spp.
Winsor et al. The content of the studied bird intestines was dominated by E. Jahantigh [ 61 , 62 ] stated that Proteus spp. The authors indicated fecal contamination that may lead to the penetration of the bacteria into the egg interior and the infection which may be a reason for a relatively high ratio of embryonic mortality in ostrich eggs in Iran. Awad-Alla et al. Next, Foti et al. From fecal swabs and internal organs of birds found dead, they isolated only one P.
The above data indicate that the presence of Proteus spp. Among the bacteria inhabiting the beak cavity and the cloaca of reproductive goose flocks — birds from 17 farms in Poland, Proteus spp. Other bacteria were isolated sporadically. Also, Kobashi et al. However, Giacopello et al. In the oral bacterial flora of Chinese cobra, Naja atra , and bamboo pit vipers, Thimeresurus albolabris , two snake species common in Hong Kong [ ], P.
Blaylock [ 16 ] reported on the common isolation of Proteus sp. There is also a report on pathogenic Proteus sp. There are several reports available concerning the presence of Proteus spp. They were the fourth genus most frequently isolated from lesions of sea turtles from the Canary Islands, Spain, and were considered as one of the causes of their diseases and mortality [ ].
Al-Bahry et al. In contrast, in nesting green turtles from Costa Rica, P. They were isolated from nasal and cloacal swabs from apparently healthy turtle females with no signs of disease. There was no correlation observed between the turtles and seawater bacteria composition, so it was suggested that Proteus bacteria should be treated as the physiological microflora of green turtles [ ]. The loggerhead turtle is included in the Red List of the world conservation union, and the microbial contamination of the turtle eggs is suspected to play a role in embryonic death and a low loggerhead hatch success rate in Georgia, USA.
Indeed, among other Gram-negative isolates from unhatched eggs of the turtle on Jekyll Island, Georgia, P. Although Proteus spp. Although this is unusual for the two species Table 4 , the isolates were able to produce cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes just as three other isolated species, Citrobacter freundii , Serratia liquefaciens , and Klebsiella oxytoca , and contrary to the other six gut isolates unable to digest cellulose.
Another example of a cellulolytic and xylanolytic P. Also, a symbiotic role has been suggested for P. Another very interesting hypothesis indicating a close relationship between P. These proteolytic microorganisms are able to produce volatile components, for example, putrescine from ornithine and ammonia see Table 1 , important for their swarming ability and, at the same time, attracting flies to the carcass. The authors stated that putrescine, which is an extracellular signal required for the swarming phenomenon and used by P.
The same role was suggested for ammonia. Both compounds as well as four other attractants NaOH, KOH, phenol, and lactic acid restored the swarming motility in different swarming-deficient mutants of the P.
The bacteria were detected also in adult L. The symbiosis between blowflies and Proteus bacteria is also indicated by the fact that P. Simultaneously, P. Complete sterility of L. Additionally, Wei et al. It has been speculated that the mechanisms stimulated by the fly host may contribute to the maintaining of antibiotic-resistant strains in particular, and in that way, their transmission is imminent.
It was also suggested [ ] that flies, as the vectors of bacteria to raw meat devoted to dog breeding, were responsible for a high percentage of morbidity and mortality due to intestinal infections among pups in greyhound dog kennels in Kansas, USA.
A high percentage of bacterial contamination among blowflies different species and domestic flies M. Nazni et al. Not only flies but also cockroaches are regarded as common vectors of different microorganisms, including P. The bacteria were found in Nigerian cockroaches in Ekpoma, a village characterized by poor sanitary conditions [ ], and in Iranian brown-banded cockroaches collected in kitchens of Ahvaz houses [ ].
Wannigama et al. However, they displayed strong pathogenicity toward lepidopterans like Heliothis virescens. Other insects which may carry Proteus spp.
It is suggested that the source of the bacteria is pollen consumption and bees in the colony are infected one by one during food exchange. Honey pollution by Proteus spp. A source of bacteria, including antibiotic-resistant ones, may be fecally contaminated water see the next paragraph , because P. The authors revealed that Proteus sp.
However, the occurrence of these opportunistic human pathogens in oysters poses a health risk if the shellfish are consumed raw. Fernandez-Delgado et al. Also, Matyar et al.
It is worth noting that Proteus spp. Nimrat et al. Cao et al. Interestingly, the mortality of shrimps was successfully inhibited by the predatory activity of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus against the P. In Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus , P. In Scomber japonicus mackerel the intestine and the stomach or in Limanda herzensteini flat fish the gills , P.
Also, freshwater Nile tilapias Oreochromis niloticus from experimental freshwater aquaculture in Brazil [ 17 ] and tilapias from Lake Victoria, Kenya [ ], were sporadically colonized by P. Kumar et al. This is the first animal habitat reported for this poorly recognized species, while the sources of isolation of two previously described P. The presence of Proteus spp. Many P. Human and animal feces are probably an important source of these rods in natural environments.
Water animals may absorb pollutant microorganisms from water. There is a potential risk of their spread in the marine food chain as well as dissemination during the food processing and transmission to humans after consumption.
For instance, bacteria in that number Proteus spp. Other marine animals that are reported to accumulate Proteus spp. Also, antibiotic-resistant Proteus spp. Some authors [ 5 , 39 , 82 ] emphasize the fact that marine environment seems to be a reservoir of genes responsible for the antibiotic resistance of polluting bacteria, as many antibiotic-resistant strains, including Proteus spp.
A good example is also the Jiaozhou Bay on the western coast of the Yellow Sea, China, which is highly contaminated due to intensive industrial development and urbanization. Effluents from hospitals and wastewater may be the sources of drug-resistant bacteria, allowing the resistance genes transfer to environmental microflora. Many bacterial strains resistant to tetracycline or chloramphenicol, including P. Also, in Cameroon studies of water samples collected for a period of 8 months from Douala Lagoon, contaminated by industrial and domestic wastes, resulted in the isolation of P.
The fact of Proteus spp. Indeed, several halotolerant Proteus spp. Microbiological investigation of water and sediments from the Vrelo Cave, the Republic of Macedonia [ 33 ], revealed mostly the presence of Bacillus spp. Moreover, although physical, chemical, and biochemical parameters indicated a high water quality, big numbers of total and fecal coliform bacteria were observed both in water and in sediment samples, suggesting their contamination from an animal source.
The detection of bacteria belonging to the genus Proteus in drinking water disqualifies its suitability for consumption due to its fecal pollution, which would threaten with waterborne infections. The problem occurs in India. Then, in bore well waters in Mysore City, P. Poonia et al. Also, in Nigeria, Proteus spp. Also, in soil, the presence of Proteus spp. Srinivasan et al.
Thus, it was suggested that the bacteria associated with fecal contamination of soil may have come from other animals, because the soil samples also contained Toxocara spp. In fact, these proteolytic microorganisms come to these environments with feces or waste, and after digestion of approachable organic matter, they decay due to the lack of nutrients.
However, these microorganisms are also found in such habitats as autochthones, well adapted to the environmental conditions, exhibiting unusual and exceptional metabolic features Table 4 , although this aspect of the genus Proteus lifestyle is less known. An interesting example is a P.
The processes and the cell growth were inhibited in the absence of any organic source of carbon. Similar metabolic activity was displayed by the Proteus sp. Simultaneous aerobic nitrification and denitrification leading to the efficient removal of nitrogen by this heterotrophic bacterium are suggested to be applied in fish waste treatment. They may play a role of effective and specialized plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria PGRP or bioremediators of hydrocarbons, pesticides, herbicides, aromatic compounds, azo dyes, and heavy metals in contaminated environments.
Lipase production is not typical of all Proteus species Table 1 , but the rods in natural environments are able to effectively degrade hydrocarbons, including oils, and to remove these hazardous substances efficiently and inexpensively.
Kim et al. The lipase was stable from pH 5 to 11 and had a maximum activity at pH The first report on a Proteus sp. The strain may be presumed to belong to P. It was found in tropical soil containing total petroleum hydrocarbons TPHs in the Tabasco region, Mexico, highly contaminated by oil spills during 20 years of pollution and was able to remove the superficial hydrocarbon layer the only carbon source in the culture medium forming a stable emulsion, most probably due to the production of biosurfactants by the strain itself.
The results were better than in the medium containing urea actively utilized by the bacteria; see Table 1. Then, Ibrahim et al. Earlier, another hydrocarbon degrading P. The isolated strain was able to utilize Bonny light crude oil, diesel, and kerosene, generating organic acids.
The finding is promising for this region, where the oil spills are a source of significant air, soil, and water pollution, destroying biodiversity in the ecosystem [ ]. Lutz et al. Proteus in the grasp of Menelaus. Dubos RJ. Bacterial and mycotic infections of man. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Fischer I. Guinard F. New York: Prometheus Press, Coolidge OE.
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